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Scientific Literature, Clostridium
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Acheson DW, Luccioli S 2004 Mucosal immune responses.
Best Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol. 18: 387-404.
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Adams RJ, Heazlewood SP, Gilshenan KS, O'Brien M, McGuckin MA, Florin TH 2008 IgG antibodies against common gut bacteria are more diagnostic for Crohn's disease than IgG against mannan or flagellin.
Am. J. Gastroenterol. 103: 386-396.
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Al-Eidan FA, McElnay JC, Scott MG, Kearney MP 2000 Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea in hospitalised patients.
J. Clin. Pharm. Ther. 25: 101-109.
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Albishri SH, Issa S, Kneteman NM, Shapiro AM 2001 Bile leak from duct of Luschka after liver transplantation.
Transplantation 72: 338-340.
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Alef K 1999 Clostridium difficile-associated disease. Implications for midwifery practice.
J. Nurse Midwifery 44: 19-29.
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Ament ME, Berquist W, Vargas J 1988 Advances in ulcerative colitis.
Pediatrician 15: 45-57.
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Ananthakrishnan AN, McGinley EL, Binion DG 2008 Excess hospitalization burden associated with Clostridium difficile in patients with inflammatory bowel disease.
Gut 57: 205-210.
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Araki Y, Andoh A, Takizawa J, Takizawa W, Fujiyama Y 2004 Clostridium butyricum, a probiotic derivative, suppresses dextran sulfate sodium-induced experimental colitis in rats.
Int. J. Mol. Med. 13: 577-580.
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Araki Y, Fujiyama Y, Andoh A, Koyama S, Kanauchi O, Bamba T 2000 The dietary combination of germinated barley foodstuff plus Clostridium butyricum suppresses the dextran sulfate sodium-induced experimental colitis in rats.
Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 35: 1060-1067.
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Arends J, Wu J, Borillo J, Troung L, Zhou C, Vigneswaran N, Lou YH 2006 T cell epitope mimicry in antiglomerular basement membrane disease.
J. Immunol. 176: 1252-1258.
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Arnold C, von Sanden S, Theilacker C, Blum HE 2008 Ulcerous colitis and infection with cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex virus and Clostridium difficile.
Z. Gastroenterol. 46: 780-783.
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Aslam S, Hamill RJ, Musher DM 2005 Treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated disease: old therapies and new strategies.
Lancet Infect. Dis. 5: 549-557.
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Balamurugan R, Balaji V, Ramakrishna BS 2008 Estimation of faecal carriage of Clostridium difficile in patients with ulcerative colitis using real time polymerase chain reaction.
Indian J. Med. Res. 127: 472-477.
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Barbara G, Stanghellini V, Brandi G, Cremon C, Di Nardo G, De Giorgio R, Corinaldesi R 2005 Interactions between commensal bacteria and gut sensorimotor function in health and disease.
Am. J. Gastroenterol. 100: 2560-2568.
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Barbut F, Gariazzo B, Bonne L, Lalande V, Burghoffer B, Luiuz R, Petit JC 2007 Clinical features of Clostridium difficile-associated infections and molecular characterization of strains: results of a retrospective study, 2000-2004.
Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 28: 131-139.
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Barker HC, Haworth CS, Williams D, Roberts P, Bilton D 2008 Clostridium difficile pancolitis in adults with cystic fibrosis.
J. Cyst. Fibros. Jun 26 [Epub ahead of print].
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Barker RH Jr, Dagher R, Davidson DM, Marquis JK 2006 Review article: tolevamer, a novel toxin-binding polymer: overview of preclinical pharmacology and physicochemical properties.
Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 24: 1525-1534.
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Batta AK, Tint GS, Xu G, Shefer S, Salen G 1998 Synthesis and intestinal metabolism of ursodeoxycholic acid conjugate with an antiinflammatory agent, 5-aminosalicylic acid.
J. Lipid Res. 39: 1641-1646.
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Beaugerie L, Petit JC 2004 Microbial-gut interactions in health and disease. Antibiotic-associated diarrhoea.
Best Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol. 18: 337-352.
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Bergert H, Illert T, Friedrich K, Ockert D 2004 Fulminant liver failure following infection by Clostridium perfringens.
Surg. Infect. (Larchmt.) 5: 205-209.
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Bergogne-Berezin E 2000 Treatment and prevention of antibiotic associated diarrhea.
Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 16: 521-526.
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Berman L, Carling T, Fitzgerald TN, Bell RL, Duffy AJ, Longo WE, Roberts KE 2008 Defining surgical therapy for pseudomembranous colitis with toxic megacolon.
J. Clin. Gastroenterol. 42: 476-480.
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Birnbaum J, Bartlett JG, Gelber AC 2008 Clostridium difficile: an under-recognized cause of reactive arthritis?
Clin. Rheumatol. 27: 253-255.
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Bobak DA 2008 Nitazoxanide to treat persistent Clostridium difficile colitis.
Curr. Infect. Dis. Rep. 10: 89-90.
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Bolte ER 1998 Autism and Clostridium tetani.
Med. Hypotheses 51: 133-144.
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Borody TJ, Warren EF, Leis SM, Surace R, Ashman O, Siarakas S 2004 Bacteriotherapy using fecal flora: toying with human motions.
J. Clin. Gastroenterol. 38: 475-483.
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Bourriaud C, Robins RJ, Martin L, Kozlowski F, Tenailleau E, Cherbut C, Michel C 2005 Lactate is mainly fermented to butyrate by human intestinal microfloras but inter-individual variation is evident.
J. Appl. Microbiol. 99: 201-212.
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Bouza E, Munoz P, Alonso R 2005 Clinical manifestations, treatment and control of infections caused by Clostridium difficile.
Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 11 Suppl. 4: 57-64.
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Bouza E, Pelaez T, Alonso R, Catalan P, Munoz P, Creixems MR 2001 "Second-look" cytotoxicity: an evaluation of culture plus cytotoxin assay of Clostridium difficile isolates in the laboratory diagnosis of CDAD.
J. Hosp. Infect. 48: 233-237.
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Brar HS, Surawicz CM 2000 Pseudomembranous colitis: an update.
Can. J. Gastroenterol. 14: 51-56.
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Bricker E, Garg R, Nelson R, Loza A, Novak T, Hansen J 2005 Antibiotic treatment for Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in adults.
Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 1: CD004610.
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Brigidi P, Vitali B, Swennen E, Bazzocchi G, Matteuzzi D 2001 Effects of probiotic administration upon the composition and enzymatic activity of human fecal microbiota in patients with irritable bowel syndrome or functional diarrhea.
Res. Microbiol. 152: 735-741.
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Brown WJ, Hudson MJ, Patrick S, Matthews SC, Hill MJ, Gent AE, Grace RH, Hellier MD, Swarbrick ET 1992 Search for enteric microbial pathogens in patients with ulcerative colitis.
Digestion 53: 121-128.
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Cadle RM, Mansouri MD, Darouiche RO 2006 Vancomycin-induced elevation of liver enzyme levels.
Ann. Pharmacother. 40: 1186-1189.
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Carson CF, Riley TV 2003 Non-antibiotic therapies for infectious diseases.
Commun. Dis. Intell. 27 Suppl.: S143-S146.
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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) 2005 Severe Clostridium difficile-associated disease in populations previously at low risk - four states, 2005.
MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 54: 1201-1205.
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Collado MC, Calabuig M, Sanz Y 2007 Differences between the fecal microbiota of coeliac infants and healthy controls.
Curr. Issues Intest. Microbiol. 8: 9-14.
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Cottrell GS, Amadesi S, Pikios S, Camerer E, Willardsen JA, Murphy BR, Caughey GH, Wolters PJ, Coughlin SR, Peterson A, Knecht W, Pothoulakis C, Bunnett NW, Grady EF 2007 Protease-activated receptor 2, dipeptidyl peptidase I, and proteases mediate Clostridium difficile toxin A enteritis.
Gastroenterology 132: 2422-2437.
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Cox KL, Cox KM 1998 Oral vancomycin: treatment of primary sclerosing cholangitis in children with inflammatory bowel disease.
J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 27: 580-583.
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Crogan NL, Evans BC 2007 Clostridium difficile: an emerging epidemic in nursing homes.
Geriatr. Nurs. 28: 161-164.
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Cucchiara S, Falconieri P, Di Nardo G, Parcelii MA, Dito L, Grandinetti A 2002 New therapeutic approach in the management of intestinal disease: probiotics in intestinal disease in paediatric age.
Dig. Liver Dis. 34 Suppl. 2: S44-S47.
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Czerucka D, Piche T, Rampal P 2007 Review article: yeast as probiotics - Saccharomyces boulardii.
Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 26: 767-778.
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Davies YK, Cox KM, Abdullah BA, Terry AB, Cox KL 2003 Oral vancomycin: treatment of primary sclerosing cholangitis in children.
J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 37: 345-346. *
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De Hertogh G, Geboes K 2004 Crohn's disease and infections: a complex relationship.
MedGenMed. 6: 14.
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de Lalla F, Nicolin R, Rinaldi E, Scarpellini P, Rigoli R, Manfrin V, Tramarin A 1992 Prospective study of oral teicoplanin versus oral vancomycin for therapy of pseudomembranous colitis and Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea.
Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 36: 2192-2196.
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Dial S, Delaney JA, Schneider V, Suissa S 2006 Proton pump inhibitor use and risk of community-acquired Clostridium difficile-associated disease defined by prescription for oral vancomycin therapy.
CMAJ 175: 745-748.
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Doron S, Gorbach SL 2006 Probiotics: their role in the treatment and prevention of disease.
Expert Rev. Anti Infect. Ther. 4: 261-275.
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Duffy M, O'Mahony L, Coffey JC, Collins JK, Shanahan F, Redmond HP, Kirwan WO 2002 Sulfate-reducing bacteria colonize pouches formed for ulcerative colitis but not for familial adenomatous polyposis.
Dis. Colon Rectum 45: 384-388.
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DuPont HL, Garey K, Caeiro JP, Jiang ZD 2008 New advances in Clostridium difficile infection: changing epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment and control.
Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 21: 500-507.
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Elsayed S, Zhang K 2006 Isolation and 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequence-based identification of Clostridium scindens from an intra-abdominal abscess.
Anaerobe 12: 13-16.
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Falk A, Olsson C, Ahrne S, Molin G, Adawi D, Jeppsson B 2007 Ileal pelvic pouch microbiota from two former ulcerative colitis patients, analysed by DNA-based methods, were unstable over time and showed the presence of Clostridium perfringens.
Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 42: 973-985.
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Fantry L 2002 Gastrointestinal infections in the immunocompromised host.
Curr. Opin. Gastroenterol. 18: 34-39.
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Fedorak RN, Madsen KL 2004 Probiotics and prebiotics in gastrointestinal disorders.
Curr. Opin. Gastroenterol. 20: 146-155.
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Fekety R 1997 Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and colitis. American College of Gastroenterology, Practice Parameters Committee.
Am. J. Gastroenterol. 92: 739-750.
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Fernell E, Fagerberg UL, Hellstrom PM 2007 No evidence for a clear link between active intestinal inflammation and autism based on analyses of faecal calprotectin and rectal nitric oxide.
Acta Paediatr. 96: 1076-1079.
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Fletcher KR, Cinalli M 2007 Identification, optimal management, and infection control measures for Clostridium difficile-associated disease in long-term care.
Geriatr. Nurs. 28: 171-181.
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Fordtran JS 2006 Colitis due to Clostridium difficile toxins: underdiagnosed, highly virulent, and nosocomial.
Proc. Bayl. Univ. Med. Cent. 19: 3-12.
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Freeman HJ 2008 Recent developments on the role of Clostridium difficile in inflammatory bowel disease.
World J. Gastroenterol. 14: 2794-2796.
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Garcia-Osogobio S, Takahashi T, Gamboa-Dominguez A, Medina H, Arch J, Mass W, Sierra-Madero J, Uscanga L 2000 Toxic pseudomembranous colitis in a patient with ulcerative colitis.
Inflamm. Bowel Dis. 6: 188-190.
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Garner CE, Smith S, de Lacy Costello B, White P, Spencer R, Probert CS, Ratcliffe NM 2007 Volatile organic compounds from feces and their potential for gastrointestinal disease diagnoses.
FASEB J. 21: 1675-1688.
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Gerard L, Garey KW, Dupont HL 2005 Rifaximin: a nonabsorbable rifamycin antibiotic for use in nonsystemic gastrointestinal infections.
Expert Rev. Anti. Infect. Ther. 3: 201-211.
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Gerding DN, Brazier JS 1993 Optimal methods for identifying Clostridium difficile infections.
Clin. Infect. Dis. 16 Suppl. 4: S439-S442.
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Gerding DN, Johnson S, Peterson LR, Mulligan ME, Silva J Jr 1995 Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and colitis.
Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 16: 459-477.
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Gerding DN, Muto CA, Owens RC Jr 2008 Treatment of Clostridium difficile infection.
Clin. Infect. Dis. 46 Suppl. 1: S32-S42.
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Giesemann T, Guttenberg G, Aktories K 2008 Human alpha-defensins inhibit Clostridium difficile toxin B.
Gastroenterology 134: 2049-2058.
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Ginsburg PM, Thuluvath PJ 2005 Diarrhea in liver transplant recipients: etiology and management.
Liver Transpl. 11: 881-890.
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Gionchetti P, Rizzello F, Campieri M 2002 Probiotics in gastroenterology.
Curr. Opin. Gastroenterol. 18: 235-239.
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Goldin BR, Gorbach SL 2008 Clinical indications for probiotics: an overview.
Clin. Infect. Dis. 46 Suppl. 2: S96-S100.
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Gosselink MP, Schouten WR, van Lieshout LM, Hop WC, Laman JD, Ruseler-van Embden JG 2004 Eradication of pathogenic bacteria and restoration of normal pouch flora: comparison of metronidazole and ciprofloxacin in the treatment of pouchitis.
Dis. Colon Rectum 47: 1519-1525.
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Greenstein AJ, Byrn JC, Zhang LP, Swedish KA, Jahn AE, Divino CM 2008 Risk factors for the development of fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis.
Surgery 143: 623-629.
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Grossman CJ, Hydo LJ, Wang JC, Pochapin M, Barie PS 2004 Devastating presentations of regional enteritis (Crohn's disease): two reports of survival following severe multiple organ dysfunction syndrome.
Surg. Infect. (Larchmt.) 5: 301-307.
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Gursoy S, Guven K, Arikan T, Yurci A, Torun E, Baskol M, Ozbakir O, Yucesoy M 2007 Clostridium difficile infection frequency in patients with nosocomial infections or using antibiotics.
Hepatogastroenterology 54: 1720-1724.
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Halsey J 2008 Current and future treatment modalities for Clostridium difficile-associated disease.
Am. J. Health Syst. Pharm. 65: 705-715.
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Hartley MG, Hudson MJ, Swarbrick ET, Grace RH, Gent AE, Hellier MD 1996 Sulphasalazine treatment and the colorectal mucosa-associated flora in ulcerative colitis.
Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 10: 157-163.
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Huang T, Wei B, Velazquez P, Borneman J, Braun J 2005 Commensal microbiota alter the abundance and TCR responsiveness of splenic naive CD4+ T lymphocytes.
Clin. Immunol. 117: 221-230.
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Inness VL, McCartney AL, Khoo C, Gross KL, Gibson GR 2007 Molecular characterisation of the gut microflora of healthy and inflammatory bowel disease cats using fluorescence in situ hybridisation with special reference to Desulfovibrio spp.
J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. (Berl.) 91: 48-53.
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Isono A, Katsuno T, Sato T, Nakagawa T, Kato Y, Sato N, Seo G, Suzuki Y, Saito Y 2007 Clostridium butyricum TO-A culture supernatant downregulates TLR4 in human colonic epithelial cells.
Dig. Dis. Sci. 52: 2963-2971.
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Issa M, Ananthakrishnan AN, Binion DG 2008 Clostridium difficile and inflammatory bowel disease.
Inflamm. Bowel Dis. 14: 1432-1442.
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Issa M, Vijayapal A, Graham MB, Beaulieu DB, Otterson MF, Lundeen S, Skaros S, Weber LR, Komorowski RA, Knox JF, Emmons J, Bajaj JS, Binion DG 2007 Impact of Clostridium difficile on inflammatory bowel disease.
Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 5: 345-351.
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Jackisch T, Freitag M, Ludwig K 2006 Gas gangrene with ulcerative colitis under immunosuppressive therapy: report of a case.
Zentralbl. Chir. 131: 84-87.
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Janeczko S, Atwater D, Bogel E, Greiter-Wilke A, Gerold A, Baumgart M, Bender H, McDonough PL, McDonough SP, Goldstein R, Simpson KW 2008 The relationship of mucosal bacteria to duodenal histopathology, cytokine mRNA, and clinical disease activity in cats with inflammatory bowel disease.
Vet. Microbiol. 128: 178-193.
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Jiang ZD, DuPont HL, Garey K, Price M, Graham G, Okhuysen P, Dao-Tran T, LaRocco M 2006 A common polymorphism in the interleukin 8 gene promoter is associated with Clostridium difficile diarrhea.
Am. J. Gastroenterol. 101: 1112-1116.
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Jiang ZD, Garey KW, Price M, Graham G, Okhuysen P, Dao-Tran T, Larocco M, Dupont HL 2007 Association of interleukin-8 polymorphism and immunoglobulin G anti-toxin A in patients with Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea.
Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 5: 964-968.
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Job ML, Jacobs NF Jr 1997 Drug-induced Clostridium difficile-associated disease.
Drug Saf. 17: 37-46.
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Johal SS, Hammond J, Solomon K, James PD, Mahida YR 2004 Clostridium difficile associated diarrhoea in hospitalised patients: onset in the community and hospital and role of flexible sigmoidoscopy.
Gut 53: 673-677.
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Johnson S, Homann SR, Bettin KM, Quick JN, Clabots CR, Peterson LR, Gerding DN 1992 Treatment of asymptomatic Clostridium difficile carriers (fecal excretors) with vancomycin or metronidazole. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial.
Ann. Intern. Med. 117: 297-302.
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Kamiya T, Shikano M, Wada T, Sasaki M, Joh T 2008 The efficacy of probiotics in gastrointestinal disease.
Nippon Rinsho 66: 1385-1390.
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Kanauchi O, Matsumoto Y, Matsumura M, Fukuoka M, Bamba T 2005 The beneficial effects of microflora, especially obligate anaerobes, and their products on the colonic environment in inflammatory bowel disease.
Curr. Pharm. Des. 11: 1047-1053.
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Kanauchi O, Mitsuyama K, Araki Y, Andoh A 2003 Modification of intestinal flora in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease.
Curr. Pharm. Des. 9: 333-346.
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Kang DJ, Ridlon JM, Moore DR 2nd, Barnes S, Hylemon PB 2008 Clostridium scindens baiCD and baiH genes encode stereo-specific 7alpha/7beta-hydroxy-3-oxo-Delta(4)-cholenoic acid oxidoreductases.
Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1781: 16-25.
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Karlinger K, Gyorke T, Mako E, Mester A, Tarjan Z 2000 The epidemiology and the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease.
Eur. J. Radiol. 35: 154-167.
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Kelly CP 2007 Protease-activated receptor 2 in the intestinal inflammatory response induced by Clostridium difficile toxin A.
Gastroenterology 132: 2599-2601.
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Kim H, Rhee SH, Pothoulakis C, Lamont JT 2007 Inflammation and apoptosis in Clostridium difficile enteritis is mediated by PGE2 up-regulation of Fas ligand.
Gastroenterology 133: 875-886.
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Kleessen B, Kroesen AJ, Buhr HJ, Blaut M 2002 Mucosal and invading bacteria in patients with inflammatory bowel disease compared with controls.
Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 37: 1034-1041.
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Koning CJ, Jonkers DM, Stobberingh EE, Mulder L, Rombouts FM, Stockbrugger RW 2008 The effect of a multispecies probiotic on the intestinal microbiota and bowel movements in healthy volunteers taking the antibiotic amoxycillin.
Am. J. Gastroenterol. 103: 178-189.
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Kotz CM, Peterson LR, Moody JA, Savaiano DA, Levitt MD 1992 Effect of yogurt on clindamycin-induced Clostridium difficile colitis in hamsters.
Dig. Dis. Sci. 37: 129-132.
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Kuijper EJ, Coignard B, Tull P; the ESCMID Study Group for Clostridium difficile (ESGCD)*; EU Member States and the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) 2006 Emergence of Clostridium difficile-associated disease in North America and Europe.
Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 12 Suppl. 6: 2-18.
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Kurtz CB, Cannon EP, Brezzani A, Pitruzzello M, Dinardo C, Rinard E, Acheson DW, Fitzpatrick R, Kelly P, Shackett K, Papoulis AT, Goddard PJ, Barker RH Jr, Palace GP, Klinger JD 2001 GT160-246, a toxin binding polymer for treatment of Clostridium difficile colitis.
Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 45: 2340-2347.
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Kyne L, Kelly CP 2001 Recurrent Clostridium difficile diarrhoea.
Gut 49: 152-153.
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Kyne L, Merry C, O'Connell B, Kelly A, Keane C, O'Neill D 1999 Factors associated with prolonged symptoms and severe disease due to Clostridium difficile.
Age Ageing 28: 107-113.
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Laffan AM, Bellantoni MF, Greenough WB 3rd, Zenilman JM 2006 Burden of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in a long-term care facility.
J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 54: 1068-1073.
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Leach ST, Mitchell HM, Eng WR, Zhang L, Day AS 2008 Sustained modulation of intestinal bacteria by exclusive enteral nutrition used to treat children with Crohn's disease.
Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. Jul 7 [Epub ahead of print].
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Leal J, Gregson DB, Ross T, Church DL, Laupland KB 2008 Epidemiology of Clostridium species bacteremia in Calgary, Canada, 2000-2006.
J. Infect. 57: 198-203.
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Lee SJ, Qin H, Benveniste EN 2008 The IFN-gamma-induced transcriptional program of the CIITA gene is inhibited by statins.
Eur. J. Immunol. 38: 2325-2336.
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Lepercq P, Gerard P, Beguet F, Raibaud P, Grill JP, Relano P, Cayuela C, Juste C 2004 Epimerization of chenodeoxycholic acid to ursodeoxycholic acid by Clostridium baratii isolated from human feces.
FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 235: 65-72.
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Lepercq P, Hermier D, David O, Michelin R, Gibard C, Beguet F, Relano P, Cayuela C, Juste C 2005 Increasing ursodeoxycholic acid in the enterohepatic circulation of pigs through the administration of living bacteria.
Br. J. Nutr. 93: 457-469.
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Listrom C, Holt K 2004 Inflammatory bowel disease.
Emerg. Med. 36: 24-28.
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Ljungh A, Wadstrom T 2006 Lactic acid bacteria as probiotics.
Curr. Issues Intest. Microbiol. 7: 73-89.
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Lundeen SJ, Otterson MF, Binion DG, Carman ET, Peppard WJ 2007 Clostridium difficile enteritis: an early postoperative complication in inflammatory bowel disease patients after colectomy.
J. Gastrointest. Surg. 11: 138-142.
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Macdonald IA, Hutchison DM, Forrest TP 1981 Formation of urso- and ursodeoxy-cholic acids from primary bile acids by Clostridium absonum.
J. Lipid Res. 22: 458-466.
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MacDonald IA, Williams CN, Sutherland JD, MacDonald AC 1983 Estimation of ursodeoxycholic acid in human and bear biles using Clostridium absonum 7 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase.
Anal. Biochem. 135: 349-354.
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Maciel AA, Oria RB, Braga-Neto MB, Braga AB, Carvalho EB, Lucena HB, Brito GA, Guerrant RL, Lima AA 2007 Role of retinol in protecting epithelial cell damage induced by Clostridium difficile toxin A.
Toxicon. 50: 1027-1040.
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Madsen KL 2001 The use of probiotics in gastrointestinal disease.
Can. J. Gastroenterol. 15: 817-822.
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Madsen KL, Doyle JS, Tavernini MM, Jewell LD, Rennie RP, Fedorak RN 2000 Antibiotic therapy attenuates colitis in interleukin 10 gene-deficient mice.
Gastroenterology 118: 1094-1105.
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Maia MR, Chaudhary LC, Figueres L, Wallace RJ 2007 Metabolism of polyunsaturated fatty acids and their toxicity to the microflora of the rumen.
Antonie. Van. Leeuwenhoek. 91: 303-314.
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Makris AT, Gelone S 2007 Clostridium difficile in the long-term care setting.
J. Am. Med. Dir. Assoc. 8: 290-299.
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Malamud A, Wilson KT 2000 Treatment of gastrointestinal infections.
Curr. Opin. Gastroenterol. 16: 51-55.
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Malnick SD, Zimhony O 2002 Treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea.
Ann. Pharmacother. 36: 1767-1775.
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Manabe YC, Vinetz JM, Moore RD, Merz C, Charache P, Bartlett JG 1995 Clostridium difficile colitis: an efficient clinical approach to diagnosis.
Ann. Intern. Med. 123: 835-840.
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Maroo S, Lamont JT 2006 Recurrent Clostridium difficile.
Gastroenterology 130: 1311-1316.
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Martinez-Medina M, Aldeguer X, Gonzalez-Huix F, Acero D, Garcia-Gil LJ 2006 Abnormal microbiota composition in the ileocolonic mucosa of Crohn's disease patients as revealed by polymerase chain reaction-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis.
Inflamm. Bowel Dis. 12: 1136-1145.
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Mascarenhas MR 2003 Treatment of gastrointestinal problems in cystic fibrosis.
Curr. Treat. Options Gastroenterol. 6: 427-441.
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Matsuda H, Fujiyama Y, Andoh A, Ushijima T, Kajinami T, Bamba T 2000 Characterization of antibody responses against rectal mucosa-associated bacterial flora in patients with ulcerative colitis.
J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 15: 61-68.
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Matthews N, Mayberry JF, Rhodes J, Neale L, Munro J, Wensinck F, Lawson GH, Rowland AC, Berkhoff GA, Barthold SW 1980 Agglutinins to bacteria in Crohn's disease.
Gut 21: 376-380.
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McFarland LV 2008 Update on the changing epidemiology of Clostridium difficile-associated disease.
Nat. Clin. Pract. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 5: 40-48.
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McFarland LV 2006 Meta-analysis of probiotics for the prevention of antibiotic associated diarrhea and the treatment of Clostridium difficile disease.
Am. J. Gastroenterol. 101: 812-822.
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McFarland LV, Surawicz CM, Rubin M, Fekety R, Elmer GW, Greenberg RN 1999 Recurrent Clostridium difficile disease: epidemiology and clinical characteristics.
Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 20: 43-50.
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McVey DC, Vigna SR 2005 The role of leukotriene B4 in Clostridium difficile toxin A-induced ileitis in rats.
Gastroenterology 128: 1306-1316.
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Meyer AM, Ramzan NN, Loftus EV Jr, Heigh RI, Leighton JA 2004 The diagnostic yield of stool pathogen studies during relapses of inflammatory bowel disease.
J. Clin. Gastroenterol. 38: 772-775.
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Miller C, Florman S, Kim-Schluger L, Lento P, De La Garza J, Wu J, Xie B, Zhang W, Bottone E, Zhang D, Schwartz M 2004 Fulminant and fatal gas gangrene of the stomach in a healthy live liver donor.
Liver Transpl. 10: 1315-1319.
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Miner J, Gillan MM, Alex P, Centola M 2005 Steroid-refractory ulcerative colitis treated with corticosteroids, metronidazole and vancomycin: a case report.
BMC Gastroenterol. 5: 3.
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David and Judy Rhodes
Last Update: 9/25/2008
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